Christian Bladon

Mariana Lazarova

PC 120 Life in the Universe

October 20, 2013

Life in a Multiple Star System?

                                    Fig.1 Artist rendition of the planet surface[1]

Introduction

Exoplanets, the great celestial bodies away from our solar system that may one day serve as colonies in the stars to mankind.  An exoplanet is a planet outside of our solar system, orbiting a star many light years away from us.  Hard to detect, humankind has only learned of their existence in the past 30 years, and cataloging them in the past 20 years.  Extremely difficult to identify due to the extreme distances between Earth and them, physicists use a variety of methods, both direct and indirect, to discover them.  Researchers use data collected from enormous telescopes, along with extremely advanced mathematics, to measure the gravitational distortion a star might receive from an exoplanet, the change in luminosity a star may present as an exoplanet drifts past it, and the Doppler shift of a star as it moves around its own orbit to identify potential new homes for the human race. 

As mankind has become increasingly versed in the layout of the galaxy, it has become apparent that although there are likely many habitable planets out there, there are also many more planets that aren’t.  Because Earth is only able to sustain a certain amount of people and their pollution, it has become viable for scientists to search for new planets in the Galaxy to inhabit, so mankind may survive and thrive in future generations.  Against the odds of finding much, it is for this reason that research is being funded to discover these potential new homes as quickly as possible.  With nearly 300 billion stars in the galaxy, and possibly more planets orbiting them, it is surprising that as recently as 2012, a possibly habitable planet named Gliese 667Cc has been discovered in the Scorpius constellation.  Orbiting the star Gliese 667C, part of a three star binary system nearly 22.1 light years away, Gliese 667Cc was discovered using the radial velocity method of exoplanet identification.  By measuring the Doppler shift that the star demonstrated in its own orbit, it was deduced that the star had a number of orbiting planetary bodies around it.  By measuring the shift in the spectral lines of the star, the change in radial velocity of a star signals that the gravity of an orbiting planet is pulling it (See Equation 1: Radial Velocity due to Planet).  Originally discovered this way, the planet was first found by the European Southern Observatory’s HARPS telescopic spectrograph by researchers at the University of Gottingen and Carnegie Institution for Science.  The planet as of right now holds the most promise of any yet discovered for a potential home for undiscovered life.

The star itself, Gliese 667C, is extremely different from that of Earth’s sun.  With a luminosity only 1.4% of the sun’s, Gliese 667C is a red dwarf star, of the classification M1.5V.  Burning at around 3700 degrees Kelvin, the star’s heat hardly compares to the intense 5,778 degrees Kelvin that the sun puts out.  Bound in a binary system of three stars, Gliese 667A and 667B orbit each other extremely closer, while Gliese 667C circles the pair from 230 astronomical units away.  Speculated to be 2 billion years old, the M type star is much smaller than the Earth’s sun, and so should live for many more billions of years until it finally transitions into its next stage of evolution.  Red Dwarfs of the M star type are the most common of all in the galaxy, and take trillions of years to mature.  As such, there are currently none in the next stage of evolution.

Thesis

Aside from all of these factors influencing how habitable the planet is, it also resides within the Habitable Zone of Gliese 667C, the distance from the star at which water can be found in liquid form.  The combination of all of these make Gliese 667Cc the most likely habitable exoplanet yet discovered, although the vast distance between it and Earth make it only possible to speculate and hypothesize on what the planet is actually like.  Despite being extremely similar to Earth, it seems unlikely that the planet is actually habitable, or carries any form of life.  Judging by researchers lack of knowledge on the exoplanet, chances are that Gliese 667Cc is for some reason or other inhabitable, due to such reasons as higher infrared radiation, a different atmosphere or the occasional spike in solar activity from the nearby star that could sterilize the planet.

                        Fig.2 The habitable ring around Gliese 667C[2]

Supporting Data

The planet’s habitability is defined by a multitude of calculations and observations, which point towards its potential for housing life as being more likely than any other planet yet discovered.  Gliese 667Cc orbits its star within the habitability zone, the ring around a star between two distances wherein liquid water may form.  By multiplying the square root of the star’s luminosity with either .95au, for the inner boundary, or 1.4au, for the outer boundary, the habitable zone edges can be found, and placed against the average distance a planet is from its star (see Equation 2: Habitable Zone Calculation).  Next, by taking the planets Albedo, or reflectivity, it is possible to estimate the average surface temperature of a planet, which for Gliese 667Cc is a temperate 277.4 degrees Kelvin.  This almost matches Earth’s average temperature, which is 287 degrees Kelvin, with the help of the planet’s atmosphere.  Classified as a super-Earth type planet, the mass of Gliese 667Cc is roughly 4.4 times greater than Earth, while still being considered habitable.  However, the result of this increased size is that gravity also goes up.  On the surface of the planet, is believed that gravity would be twice as strong as that on Earth, meaning a person would weigh twice what they normally do.  Due to the planet’s strong similarities to Earth, estimated to be around 90%, it can be assumed that a similar atmosphere would cover the planet, helping the planet retain heat in much the same way as Earth does.  It can be assumed that the equation for the planet’s temperature equilibrium, or the average temperature of the planet’s surface in simpler terms.  Using the planet’s estimated albedo, which is about 11% that of the Earth, the average temperature on Gliese 667Cc comes out to be 277.4 degrees Kelvin, within 10 degrees Kelvin of Earth’s termperature (see Equation 3: Albedo Calculation / Temperature Equilibrium).  However, unlike the sun, Gliese 667C is a much more slowly developing star.  Although the Habitable Zone in the solar system will likely shift in the next few billion years, it is unlikely that this will occur at Gliese 667C.  This means that if Gliese 667Cc is in fact a habitable exoplanet, it could be used as a home for mankind for an indefinitely great period of time.

                        Fig. 3 A comparison of Earth against the other possibly habitable planets[3]

Species Speculation

In truth, the surface of the planet is more similar than not to terrestrial locations, such as the Grand Canyon.  With deep, trench like canyons acting as the path for relatively shallow rivers, a pleasant biota of flora grow near the edge of the water.  Bleached a deep, blood red, the short grass and ferns pick up the increased levels of infrared light from Gliese 667C as a higher source of energy than the visible light on the planet.  Most surprising of all, however, is the presence of two main species of conflicting amphibians and reptiles.  The amphibians resemble a mix of an eel and a frog, having an extremely elongated body typically two feet in length, with powerful hind-legs, and surprisingly dexterous forearms.  Surviving off of algae in the canyon rivers of the planet as a main source of food, this species is in constant evolutionary conflict with the reptile like predators they share the planet with.  The reptiles, in contrast to the long shape of the amphibious species, are extremely compact, resembling a rounder version of a Crocodile and a Komodo Dragon.  However, what sets them apart as a predator is their right forearm; a retractable arm with razor-like claws capable of rocketing out to full length (about a foot) in less than .03 seconds.  Although they may be the only two organisms of complex structure and movement, the two species offer a wide variety of colors and regional mutations that are fairly noticeable.  The higher levels of infrared light, combined with the excess radiation of solar flares at a much closer distance to the orbiting star cause mutations to occur within the organisms DNA at a rate nearly 100x that of Earth.  Unfortunately, the tidal locking of the planet to its sun means that the planet’s organisms can only survive along a ring a few kilometers in width around the planet, where there is a perpetual state of semi-day and semi-night.  If visiting the area, most scientists recommend taking a small raft down one of the many rivers, to reduce impact upon the relatively fragile ecosystem, while also decreasing stress from the planets higher gravity force.  These trips are not for the casual adventurer, as the extra force of gravity upon the body calls for a high level of fitness to counteract the natural extra strain put upon the body.

Conclusion

Gliese 667Cc resides as the planet most likely capable of life that we have yet discovered, although there are still discrepancies as a home for potential new life.  The lack of information on the planet’s surface will slowly reduce in the coming years as more and more information is gained on the system, although labeling it the “holy grail”[4] of life on an exoplanet may be immature.  This does not detract from the excitement over the discovery of the exoplanet, as any new planet with the possibility of life pushes humankind one step closer to branching off from earth, and becoming a space-faring civilization.

Sources

– Wedemeyer-Böhm, Sven. “Life on Gliese 667Cc?” – Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics. Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, 17 Feb. 2012. Web. 21 Oct. 2013. <http://www.mn.uio.no/astro/english/research/news-and-events/news/astronews-2012-02-17.html&gt;.

– “More Talk About Gliese 667Cc, The “Holy Grail” of Exoplanets.” Space Oddities – What I Didn’t Learn in Science Class. WordPress.org, 28 Apr. 2012. Web. 21 Oct. 2013. <http://lilspaceoddities.wordpress.com/2012/04/28/more-talk-about-gliese-667-cc-the-holy-grail-of-exoplanets/&gt;.

– Creager, Charles, Jr. ” Gliese 667Cc, The Latest “Habitable” Planet.” Gliese 667Cc. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2013. <http://gscim.com/Science_News/4-12/Gliese_667Cc.html&gt;.

– Delfosse, Xavier. “The HARPS Search for Southern Extra-solar Planets. XXXIII. Super-Earths around T.” The HARPS Search for Southern Extra-solar Planets. XXXIII. Super-Earths around T. Astronomy and Astrophysics, May 2012. Web. 21 Oct. 2013. <http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013A&A…553A…8D&gt;.

– Gregory, Philip C. “Additional Keplerian Signals in the HARPS Data for Gliese 667C from a Bayesian Re-analysis.” Adsabs.harvard.edu. Eprint ArXiv:1212.4058, Dec. 2012. Web. 21 Oct. 2013. <http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012arXiv1212.4058G&gt;.

Pictures:

http://lilspaceoddities.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/gliese667cc.jpg

http://lilspaceoddities.wordpress.com/2012/04/28/more-talk-about-gliese-667-cc-the-holy-grail-of-exoplanets/

Gliese 667Cc (planet) measurements:

Orbital Period: 28.123 days / 2.43 x 10⁶ seconds

Semi-Major Axis: 0.1251 au / 1.87 x 10¹⁰ meters

Radial Velocity: 2.1 m/s

85% similarity to Earth

Receives 90% as much light as earth

Mass: 4.45 Earth masses / 2.657 x 10²⁵ kg

Velocity: 48355 m/s

Estimated Temperature: 277.4K

Albedo: 0.11

Gliese 667C (star) measurements:

Classification: Red Dwarf, M1.5

Luminosity: 0.014

Distance to Earth: 6.8 parsecs / 22.1 lightyears

Habitable Zone (me): D_inner = 0.112 au    D_outer = 0.165 au

Habitable Zone (source): D_inner = 0.095 – 0.126 au    D_outer = 0.241 – 0.251 au

Mass: 0.31 Orbital Masses / 6.163 x 10²⁹ kg

Radius: 0.42 Solar Radii / 2.92 x 10⁸m

Equation 1: Radial Velocity due to Planet

V_planet = 2pa_p            =  2 p (1.87 x 10¹⁰m)               =   48355 m/s

               P_p                        (2429827s)

A_p = Semi-Major Axis (planet)

P_p = Period (planet)

M_star x V_star = m_planet x v_planet 

(6.163 x 10²⁹ m/s) x V_star = (2.657 x 10²⁹ kg) x (48355 m/s)

V_star = 2.1 m/s = radial velocity

M_star = Mass (star)

V_star = Velocity (star)

m_planet = Mass (planet)

v_planet = Velocity (planet)

Equation 2: Habitable Zone Calculation:

D_inner = 0.95au(ÖL)

D_inner = .095au (Ö0.014)

D_inner = 0.112au

D_outer = 1.4au(ÖL)

D_outer = 1.4au(Ö0.014)

D_outer = 0.165au

Equation 3: Albedo Calculation / Temperature Equilibrium:

T_eq = 278K x (L)^1/4 x (1-A)^1/4

                        (ÖD)

L = Luminosity

T_eq = Equilibrium Temperature / Average Planet Temperature

A = Albedo / Reflectivity

D = Distance from star

In the graph provided, the data of general happiness on a scale from one to ten on the y-axis has been put up against year on the x-axis.  In this regard, how happy people are on average on any given year is shown from the mid-1960s to 2010.  As is readily apparent from looking at the graph, these two variables are in some way related, holding a fairly noticeable correlation line from beginning to end.  As the years have gone on, general population happiness of the average person has remained fairly steady, with points of extreme value coinciding with certain historical events of either depression or excess happiness.  In much the same way as the Hurtzsprung-Russel Diagram, happiness falls generally upon a main sequence that is a constant level of slightly higher than seven, with some years being outliers of the dataset.  This proves that happiness is not a constant, but a varying calculation on the population.  However, as data becomes more present and accessible, a slight rise can be seen in the more recent years.  Although the data is only over the course of sixty years, this rise may imply that the general happiness of humankind is increasing over time.  While this may be true, certain years have more than one set of data, while some have none at all.  This lack of a complete set of data could hold important results for level of happiness, showing more outlying years on the data plot.  

http://www1.eur.nl/fsw/happiness/hap_nat/nat_fp.php?cntry=35&name=United%20States&mode=3&subjects=5336&publics=790

Scientists have recently discovered a low-mass planet, drifting around in space without a star to orbit.  Difficult to discover due to the lack of a bright star nearby to signal its location, free floating planets are in fact easier for scientists to study than those near stars.  WIthout a source of brighter light nearby, actual direct imaging of the planet can be taken without the interference stars normally give.  The planet was discovered while scientists in Hawaii tried to find Brown Dwarf stars, using the Pan-STARRS 1 wide-field survey telescope.  However unlikely due to the raw amount of data that the PS1 telescope receives, a grand total of around 4,000 terabytes, the planet was discovered over the course of a two-year mapping project that also discovered the distance of the planet to Earth.  Although much larger and younger, the planet strongly resembles the conditions found upon Jupiter, which scientists hope will be able to shed new light on an early gas-giant’s life.  

http://annesastronomynews.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Artists-conception-of-PSO-J318.5-22..jpg

http://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/10/tech/space-new-planet/index.html?iref=allsearch 

http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/info/press-releases/LonelyPlanet/

Quantum computers are the next evolution of computing power, attaining higher speeds of functionality than any silicon-based computer ever possibly could.  Using binary code in long sequences, normal computers are told what to do in linear sequences that involve either 1s, 0s or blank spots.  However, the stream of data which a quantum computer uses as well as the the reader/writer tool reside in a quantum state, allowing for the superposition of certain points.  This means that these certain points can simultaneously be 1, 0 or anything in between, called qubits.  The use of qubits as a carrier for data allows quantum computers to perform many calculations at once, increasing its processing speed exponentially.  The many different forms of information involves within quantum computers can be summed up by the statement, “Qubits represent atoms, ions, photons and electrons and their respective control devices that are working together to act as computer memory and a processor.”  This duality is what leads quantum computers to be able to run so many calculations at once, which scientists theorize could at some point reach millions per second.  However, because of the tricky nature of these particles, measurements of them directly would change them.  To bypass this, scientists are using the entanglement of atoms, which is the theory that states that one atom will take on the properties of another when pushed together.  It is then that they are measured, so as to give a better understanding of the properties of the particles under less outside influence.

Although personal quantum computers are a distant thought right now, progress is still being made upon their design every year.  As more qubits of data are added unto the processing power of these quantum computers, we inch ever closer to having more practically applicable versions of these devices, that will someday revolutionize the speed at which calculations are done.

http://www.research.att.com/export/sites/att_labs/library/image_gallery/articles/2011_Jan-Mar/201011_qubit_vs_bit.jpghttp://www.stumbleupon.com/su/1rrBpQ/:J_ltq72H:LcIOHTq@/computer.howstuffworks.com/quantum-computer.htm/printable/

To the general populace, most people don’t actually know much about what a quantum computer is, or what it actually does, besides being extremely small.  In truth quantum computers are smaller, allowing them to exploit certain laws of quantum mechanics so as to make calculations at an extremely expedited rate.  However, long distance communications between quantum computers has produced a certain road block in the advancement of their use.  At the National Insitute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the US, scientists are working on a way to bridge the gap between computers, transferring information using photons of light, and fibre optics.  The scientists use a quantum dot, a semiconductor version of a single atom, to release single photons typically at an infrared wavelength.  Quantum computers store data in devices called quantum memories which prefer photons in the visible spectrum of light, whereas the fibre optics necessary for the information transfer work best using photons with an infrared level of energy.  By directing the incoming photons from the fibre optic into a crystal, and then shooting it with a high-energy laser, scientists at the NIST have devised how to reduce the energy of the incoming photons to that of the visible light spectrum.  This allows the transfer of data, albeit at a still very rudimentary phase.  One of the lead researchers, Matthew Rakher, believes that in the future, they will be able to manipulate the photon wavelength and shape so as to perfectly fit a quantum memory’s preferences, as well as reduce the amount of energy needed to convert them to such a state.  

http://www.wired.com/images_blogs/wiredscience/2010/01/quantum_computer.jpg

http://www.stumbleupon.com/su/1ldbPl/:WJWjY05t:IvE-FmzW/physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/46765/

Recently coming to light from an experiment involving the smashing of atoms in a large collider, the a new discovery has been made about anti-matter.  When smashing a particle and anti-particle together, pure energy is released, and then converts into particles called mesons.  These mesons come in two matter forms, neutral B-mesons and positive B-mesons, as well as their counterparts, Anti B-mesons and negative B-mesons, respectively.  The most recent discovery, however, is in how each of these particles decay.  It was discovered that neutral B-mesons decayed faster than anti B-mesons in 2004, and hence assumed that positive B-mesons would follow suit.  Proven incorrect, it has now become apparent that positive B-mesons decay slower than their antimatter counterpart.  This scientists that performed this experiment, led by Paoti Chang at the KEK-B accelerator in Japan, believe that this new discovery could completely change how particle asymmetry is viewed in the scientific world.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Linac_straight_for_600m.jpg

http://www.stumbleupon.com/su/1Pcvip/:jvtYG4HB:HcBdpf2!/www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/1899/

Recently, it has been released that a group of scientists has edged significantly closer to the energetic break-even point of nuclear reactions.  Although we have long had the ability to create nuclear fission as an energy source, mankind has never been able to replicate the same processes of the sun, in the form of atomic fusion.  However, through a special process involving shooting a laser at a golden cylinder with a metal sphere filled with hydrogen isotopes inside, scientists at the National Ignition Facility have gained the highest yield of energy back yet.  Because it has never happened, the scientific community is searching for the “break even” point of nuclear fusion, wherein the energy they put in for the reaction to occur at least mirrors the energy given off.  As of right now, the only thing holding researchers back from this point is fine-tuning the instruments and methods used to create fusion.  The gold cylinder used gives off extremely powerful X-rays when hit with the laser, which in turn vaporizes the surface of the interior metal ball, causing the hydrogen isotopes to smash and fuse.  However, small imperfections in the surface of the metal ball cause fluctuations in pressure around the ball, causing implosions that waste energy.  By changing certain variables in the experiment, such as the length of time the gold cylinder is shot with the laser, researchers hope to increase the energy yield from the already impressive 80 percent to something greater.  

This is not the only form of the experimental nuclear fusion, however.  Another project, dubbed the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, will examine how to use plasma suspended in magnetic fields as a form of self sustaining fusion.  Although this form of fusion has been done before, never before has it been used as energy for a power plant.  Although the scientist’s progress is slow, the progress they are making keeps them hopeful and optimistic

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Preamplifier_at_the_National_Ignition_Facility.jpg

http://www.stumbleupon.com/su/16l0xn/:J7hS77js:M$j7Q52x/www.livescience.com/40035-fusion-energy-gets-closer-to-reality.html/

https://www.google.com/search?q=nuclear+reaction&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=bUZKUvWbFazyyAHe94HoBw&ved=0CAkQ_AUoAQ&biw=1124&bih=580&dpr=1#q=nuclear+fusion&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=HoJwQmADbcliCM%3A%3Bbm_0V5qeQ3xC2M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fupload.wikimedia.org%252Fwikipedia%252Fcommons%252Fd%252Fdf%252FSun_in_X-Ray.png%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fen.wikipedia.org%252Fwiki%252FFusion_power%3B690%3B500

Christian Bladon

Mariana Lazarova

Physics: Life in the Universe, PC 120

“So it goes”

With this simple phrase, Kurt Vonnegut lays down the entire philosophical ideology of a far greater, far more advanced form of life.  With these three words the protagonist of Slaughterhouse 5 drifts through his life, living off the almost apathetic saying of an alien race.  However, this novel’s main character, a man named Billy Pilgrim, is not a typical person.  Self-proclaimed as being, “unstuck in time,” Billy jumps around moments of his life, never quite knowing where or when in his life he will be whenever he opens his eyes.  This means that any moment that Billy has lived or will live, he may find himself there at any time.  Whether this moment is his birth, life as a war prisoner in World War II, presence at the infamous bombing of Dresden or his abduction by the fourth dimensional Tralfamadorians, he flits about time while only semiconscious of it all.  Unfortunately, as wonderful a plot driver as Billy’s experiences with time and extraterrestrials may be, the absurdity of these ideas pull the narrative away from semi-plausible science fiction.  Although the presentation of such elements may push this book into the genre, the way in which time is presented from Billy’s perspective, as well as the highly unlikely portrayal of extraterrestrial life, make this narrative closer to pure fiction than anything scientific.

Looked at linearly, the life of Billy Pilgrim is related in fragments from his childhood, life as a chaplain’s assistant in World War II, and eventual old age in Illium, New York.  From the bombing of Dresden, a massacre greater than even Hiroshima and Nagasaki, to being held captive on the planet Tralfamadore with the adult film actress Montana Wildhack, Billy floats by with an acceptance of misfortune that borders on indifference.  The passive look at tragic events comes from Billy’s encounter with the fourth dimensional Tralfamadorians, who view all of time simultaneously and simply prefer to detach themselves from the unfortunate, while giving more attention to the good moments.  Billy’s ready acceptance of death is derived from this, and he derides the typical view of time in his statement, “It is just an illusion we have on Earth that one moment follows another one, like beads on a string, and that once a moment is gone it is gone forever”(25).  With his particular situation involving time travel, Billy detaches himself from the horrors of his life, while living through them at the same time, knowing he will jump out of the moment soon enough.

Although the idea of time presented from the view of the fourth dimensional Tralfamadorians may be to some degree understandable, the way in which Billy Pilgrim skips about the chapters of his life is singularly a narrative element, and in no way based upon reality.  The prospect of becoming unstuck in time, jumping around the events of one’s life is impossible any other way than remembering.  With how time is understood, moving one’s conscious perspective back and forth through their timeline would only be possible in a person’s imagination, where they can create different memories or scenarios at their pleasure.  By transferring his conscious mind across time, Billy Pilgrim is changing the configuration of the particles in his brain during all given moments of his life into that of a disembodied sentience for a few moments, only to switch back shortly after.  In the novel, Billy Pilgrim initially experiences his jumps in time during a march through the frozen forests of Germany, mid World War II.  As a coping mechanism for the intense stress and depression that he felt at that time, it is likely that he instead began hallucinating or dreaming while awake during his ordeal.  To detach himself from the horrors of living through the now infamous bombing of Dresden, Billy Pilgrim creates this idea of shifting consciousness.  Combined with the eventual appearance of the Tralfamadorians, the ever-present philosophical phrase, “So it goes,” is created.  Even the narrator, told from the perspective of Kurt Vonnegut himself, is skeptical of Billy Pilgrim’s unnatural ability, beginning the novel with, “He has seen his birth and death many times, he says, and pays random visits to all events in between.  He says.”  Through the duration of the novel, Vonnegut acknowledges himself as the narrator twice, taking on the role of a member of Billy Pilgrim’s platoon, who then writes the narrative as an outsider looking in.  However, with the repetition of the last line in this quotation, Vonnegut conveys a sense of doubt to the reader that confirms the fictitiousness of it all.

Despite their use as an interesting plot device to move the narrative along, the portrayal of Tralfamadorians as vaguely plunger shaped creatures is utterly unrealistic.  Described as being, “two feet high, and green and shaped like plumber’s friends… [and] at the top of each shaft was a little hand with a green eye in its palm(25)”.  Evolutionarily, this shape and size is completely impractical, with there being no apparent advantages to this body type.  Besides this, and with the intelligence that these creatures have, it seems unlikely that a body as such would be able to support a complex neural system, or organs in general.  However, they are also described as being fourth dimensional beings, which could play some part in how they evolved.  Still, with how life and evolution appear to work, it seems unlikely that they would be the only creatures living in the fourth dimension, and so would still need to better themselves through adaptation.  The Tralfamadorians do contribute a major idea to the story of Billy Pilgrim, due to their nature as being able to see all of time.  While talking about horrible events in life, they say, “There isn’t anything we can do about them, so we simply don’t look at them.  We ignore them.  We spend eternity looking at pleasant moments (112)”.  The Tralfamadorians can see all moments, good and bad; yet choose to dwell on the better ones for happiness sake.  Billy Pilgrim adopts this philosophy of enjoying the pleasant moments, and glazes by the bad ones with the alien expression, “so it goes”.  Although these extraterrestrials are completely founded in fiction, they add a necessary element of absurdness and philosophy to Vonnegut’s novel, and how he conveys its message.

Despite these glaring contradictions to common sense and knowledge of how time and evolution work, Vonnegut’s tale portrays an interesting view upon time, and how tragic events should be viewed.  By using broken narrative of non-linear storytelling, the saga of Billy Pilgrim and all his fortune and suffering are told in a way that never seems to get too tragic or too joyous.  In a novel that is at its core about war and certain atrocities that humankind has committed, Vonnegut never preaches his message.  By using the science-fiction elements of time travel and extraterrestrial life throughout, the absurdity and satire mix to soften the point, but still convey a message.  Aside from the fantastic elements, Slaughterhouse 5 tells an amazing tale of one man’s life in an extremely original and inventive way.

Vonnegut, Kurt. Slaughterhouse-five, Or, the Children’s Crusade: A Duty-dance with Death. New York, NY: Dell, 1991. Print.

Inside the realm of science fiction, an exceedingly large amount of stories contain the idea of faster-than-light travel.  The ability to bridge vast distances in a matter of seconds is a concept that has driven essentially all of humankind’s transportation technology, and “warp speed” is the most logical next step.  However, whereas this idea originated and permeates sci-fi, that doesn’t mean it is a completely impossible idea.  In one model, named the Alcubierre warp drive, a flat ring of immense density would halo a smaller, football-field sized space ship.  The idea is that the density of the ring would be able to warp space time around it, propelling the ship at multiple times the speed of light.

However, with the possibility of danger.  Quite comically, it turns out that in all likelihood the use of such a mechanism could have disastrous results.  If the Alcubierre drive were to be used, it would pick up small particles shooting through space, capturing them in the warp field.  These particles would travel with the ship, picking up larger amounts of energy as the trip carried on.  FInally, it is believed that upon disengaging the warp drive, these particles would blast out in a cone shape, annihilating anything in its path.  The true humor of the idea then arises from the fact that upon arriving anywhere, you would instantly vaporize the place you came to.   

http://www.stumbleupon.com/su/4utJG1/www.extremetech.com/extreme/140635-the-downside-of-warp-drives-annihilating-whole-star-systems-when-you-arrive/

http://www.stumbleupon.com/su/4utJG1/www.extremetech.com/extreme/140635-the-downside-of-warp-drives-annihilating-whole-star-systems-when-you-arrive/

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Located centrally in New Hampshire lies the renowned town of Rumney, a rock-climbing spot famous throughout the country.  Known as one of the finest spots for climbing on the east coast, Rumney is home to a multitude of faces, arêtes and chimneys.  As part of the White Mountains, it is in a range that covers much of New Hampshire in a combination of schist and granite rock.  Shaping between 125 and 100 million years ago, the range took form through a combination of magma intrusions and glaciation. 

At the very beginning of the region, lava poured out in layers, shortly after followed by the edge of a sea, bringing with it sand and limestone.  However, as the sedimentary rock was being washed in, small chimneys of lava pushed through layers of forming schist to cover the area in igneous rock as North American plate slid over the New England hot spot.  As years went on, the sea receded and the magma intrusions became less frequent, the area was left to years of erosion from lakes, river, rain and ice wore the area away until a short frozen period began.  A glacier formed that would dam rivers and scatter boulders across the area.  Great lakes formed from this, eroding away pockets and valleys of the mountains, while the glaciers themselves helped in the creation of numerous mountain passes. 

Although the White Mountains may not seem like much in comparison to the mountains found in states farther west, they are in fact part of the Appalachian Mountain Range.  Covering much of New England, the Appalachians most rugged area is found in the White Mountain area, including Rumney.  The region is just one example of a multitude of mountain ranges that stretch from Alabama all the way into Canada, although it is the most prevalent and well known on the east coast.  Rock climbers hold Rumney in high regard for its many different and variable faces, the region fluctuating in size from short bouldering problems, to routes going up almost 300 feet.