Original Article from SPACE.com

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On April 3, 2013, scientists announced results from their massive particle detector, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), that had been surveying space from the International Space Station for over a year and a half.

The particle detector was designed to measure cosmic-ray particles in space.  Over the course of 18 months, AMS detected billions of these particles.  Finally, AMS picked up a signal that is likely to have originated from dark matter, which makes up over 75% of all matter in our universe.  The signal AMS picked up came from about 400,000 positrons, or positively charged electrons.  Even thought positrons are the anti-matter counterpart of an electron, scientists believe that these positrons may have been created when particles of dark matter collided with each other.  However, dark matter is not the same as anti-matter.

An artists impression of dark matter in the universe.  Source:  Star Talk Radio

Dark matter emits no light, therefore it can’t be detected with telescopes.  In addition, the amount of dark matter in the universe seems to significantly outweigh the amount of regular matter in the universe.  Physicists believe that dark matter is made of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), which seldom interact with regular matter.  Because WIMPs are thought to annihilate each other, similar to dark matter, the reaction would leave behind a positron and an election.  Scientists can links these positrons to dark matter because they match predictions for dark matter created positrons discovered by PAMELA.  Positrons from dark matter should be found with energy levels higher than 10 GeV (gigaelectron volts).  Not only were these particles discovered with energy levels above 10 GeV, some particles had energies of up to 250 GeV, lending further evidence to dark matter annihilations.  Additionally, these positrons don’t come from a single source in the sky either, they originate from all over.

AMS has detected over 6.8 million positrons and electrons so far.  Even though AMS will continue to collect data, scientists will not be able to tell if these come from dark matter or another source, despite the evidence.  Another suggested theory is that these come from pulsars.  In fact, scientists actually intend to learn more about dark matter at home, via underground experiments right here on Earth.

Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity has to be one of the most magnificent scientific theories ever developed. In short, the theory explains how gravity is an infinite curvature of space-time. It is important to note that I am no expert on this topic, although I have studied it independently on a few occasions. However, I will do my best to show you what I do know, as only a minimal understanding of the theory and how it was proven is necessary to appreciate how incredible it is.

In the early 1900s, it was generally accepted that all space around us was filled with ether, and that this ether helped suspend stars and planets all over the universe in place. This idea implied that if you were traveling in the same direction as light, the light would appear to move slower, and that when you turned around and went back the other way, the light would appear to move faster. However, the first accurate experiments conducted on the speed of light proved that light traveled at the same speed, no matter how fast the observer was moving. By 1915, Einstein had drawn up an equation for this idea, which you have probably heard of; E=MC^2. All of the math proved to be correct, so the only thing that Einstein needed to confirm his theory was observational proof of the phenomena he aimed to describe. Specifically, Einstein needed evidence that light would be physically affected by the gravity of any object with mass, and as a result would not necessarily travel in a straight line. The only problem lied in the fact that it was particularly difficult to capture a picture in which the path of light had been noticeably altered. On May 29, 1919, he finally found the proof he was looking for, through Arthur Eddington.

Eddington, a famous British astrophysicist, was leading an expedition to West Africa to observe a solar eclipse. If Einstein’s theory was correct, an eclipse seemed to provide the only scenario in which this morphing of light could be observed, as light would be bent greatly around an object as massive as the sun. However, the sun had to be pictured during an eclipse, and not just at any time, because photographing the sun when it was out during the day would just cause the pictures to be blurry and inaccurate. Something as simple as a cloudy night would have completely ruined Eddington’s plans of photographing the sun, but luckily, the skies were clear that Thursday night. As expected, when the eclipse was at its peak, light from stars that lie great distances behind the sun seemed to be curving as it passed the sun (picture below). Just as Einstein had predicted, the light was physically shifted as it passed by our enormous star, which showed that light could be affected by gravity just as any other matter would be. For most of the leading scientists at the time, this was enough evidence to confirm Einstein’s brilliant General Theory of Relativity, and earn him the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physics.

Arthur Eddington’s famous picture of the sun, which went on to prove Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity

The most amazing part of this story is probably Einstein’s burning desire to achieve his goal. He found out that he would have to somehow photograph the morphing of light around the sun, so what did he do? He realized that the only time where this would be even remotely possible would be during a solar eclipse, so he responded accordingly and eventually had pictures to prove his theory. The results of his hard work are incredible – A Nobel Prize in Physics and the complete reworking of what we now consider to be a primitive, pre-Einstein understanding of gravity.

The following article by Steven Hawking was used for reference in this blogpost:

http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/time/1999/12/27/relativity.html

Well, kind of…

This week, scientists at the University of Cambridge have released their discovery of naturally occurring mechanical gears in a living organism. That’s right, as awesome as bikes and trains are, nature beat us to the punch. This observation was made in the juvenile Issus coleoptratus, a small, jumping insect found very commonly in gardens throughout Europe, and represents the first discovery of mechanical gearing in a living organism.

Juvenile Issus coleoptratus

Just looking at the Issus, it doesn’t look like much, and it’s easy to wonder why no one thought much of it in the past. But this news marks the discovery of a truly incredible feat of evolution. The aforementioned mechanical gear structure is found in the hind legs of the Issus, and is used to bring the movement of the legs during a leap into perfect synchronicity.  The reason for this mechanical synchronicity is that the nervous system alone does not actually possess the precision to move both legs at the exact same time and rate, and a difference in motion of even a few microseconds can cause the Issus to fly out of control. This almost seems shocking given the established power that the nervous system has in living organisms, but it is equally amazing to think of the speed of movement that is required to exceed the brains ability to send synchronized nerve impulses to both legs.

What is also interesting is that these structures appear only in juvenile stage of the insect, perhaps due to the fact that the nervous system is still developing to a point where absolute synchronicity of movement is possible without mechanical assistance. At this point, scientists are unsure about connections between the juvenile and adult stages and the potential role of the structures later in life. No matter what though, this discovery highlights the incredible power of evolution on Earth, and the feats that is capable of. As the co-author Gregory Sutton states: “These gears are not designed; they are evolved…”

Sources:

Burrows, Malcolm, and Gregory Sutton. “Mechanical Gears Seen for the First Time in Nature.” Mechanical Gears Seen for the First Time in Nature. Bristol University, 18 Sept. 2013. Web. 18 Sept. 2013.

Images:

http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/science/2013/09/this-insect-has-the-only-mechanical-gears-ever-found-in-nature/

http://jjsphotographicblog.blogspot.com/2012/08/hopping-mad-down-in-kent.html

In a recent article from Astrobiology magazine, they discussed testing the theory of panspermia, or the idea that life can naturally transfer between planets. The possibility that life was not created on Earth but from some other place in the universe is plausible through panspermia. It’s possible that meteorites of Mars rock could have carried small life forms when they made their journey to travel to Earth. But there are many questions that panspermia still has to answer. For example, would life forms survive a impact where they are ejected into space? Could organisms survive the deep chill and radiation of space? Could they enter the Earth’s atmosphere and crash while remaining alive? New research helps to answer one of these questions.

It’s possible that meteorites might have brought life to our planet

The European Planetary Science Congress at UCL tested whether entry and impact is possible for simpler organisms by using frozen pieces of an algae called Nannochloropsis oculata. Dina Pasini did this to see if the conditions were possible for early life to survive if it had traveled through space. Pasini used a two-stage light gas gun to fire frozen pellets of the Nannochloropsis into water in order to see if it could survive. She found that even at 6.93 km/s, which is similar to the impact velocity of a meteorite hitting a planet, a small percent survived. This leaves open the possibility that panspermia might actually be true.

The surface of Mars, and a potential starting point of life in the universe

So what if Panspermia is true? What would the implications of this be? Could life as we know have started not on Earth, but on a different planet? Maybe even a different galaxy? It sounds like science fiction, but it could prove to be true. But with the surface of Mars so barren, and the idea of life elsewhere seeming unrealistic, how would we ever know? Time will tell in future observations and studies, but maybe we aren’t as alone in the galaxy as we might believe.

Image sources:

http://www.dvice.com/sites/dvice/files/styles/blog_post_media/public/JHU%20asteroid.jpg?itok=TMiJ5zLy

http://i.huffpost.com/gen/1251399/thumbs/r-LIFE-ON-MARS-large570.jpg?7

Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launch
http://lasp.colorado.edu/education/outerplanets/missions_voyagers.php

Recently, in the news all the focus has been on Voyager 1’s exit of our solar system. It is now flying on into unknown and unexplored space. It is the hero. A soaring symbol of humanity’s curiosity and accomplishment. What about Voyager 2? You do know Voyager 1 has a twin, right? In 1977, NASA launched both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 into space with missions to explore the Jovian planets and the outer reaches of the Solar System.

Voyager 2 was the first spacecraft to explore Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Voyager 1 did not discover volcanoes or the Great Red spot on Jupiter. Voyager 1 did not sample Saturn’s atmosphere, providing vital information regarding the gases that compose this great ringed planet, nor did Voyager 1 plunge on towards Uranus and Neptune to  discover the effects of Uranus’ drastic tilt on its magnetic field and it certainly did not photograph the Great Dark Spot on the surface of Neptune. That was all Voyager 2. Even though it may be the slower of the twin spacecraft, moving at 15.428 km/s, it has definitely provided more scientific observation and discovery than its speedier twin. While the attention is on Voyager 1 for leaving our solar system we must remember its better and slower half because Voyager 2 is not far behind.

The Great Red Spot on Jupiter
http://www.universetoday.com/15163/jupiters-great-red-spot/

Although it is fun to pit these spacecraft together as competitive twins, that is not the point. They may be two separate machines, but their goal and intent is the same. They were sent as a team to probe the unknown, to push the limits of human exploration far beyond anything attempted in history. They have accomplished this mission, as a team, and they will continue to soar out into interstellar space, one closely trailing the other, as loyal twins.

Sources

Voyager 2.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 17 Sept. 2013. Web. 18 Sept. 2013. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2>.

“The Mission.” Voyager. Web. 18 Sept. 2013. <http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/index.html>.

Inside the realm of science fiction, an exceedingly large amount of stories contain the idea of faster-than-light travel.  The ability to bridge vast distances in a matter of seconds is a concept that has driven essentially all of humankind’s transportation technology, and “warp speed” is the most logical next step.  However, whereas this idea originated and permeates sci-fi, that doesn’t mean it is a completely impossible idea.  In one model, named the Alcubierre warp drive, a flat ring of immense density would halo a smaller, football-field sized space ship.  The idea is that the density of the ring would be able to warp space time around it, propelling the ship at multiple times the speed of light.

However, with the possibility of danger.  Quite comically, it turns out that in all likelihood the use of such a mechanism could have disastrous results.  If the Alcubierre drive were to be used, it would pick up small particles shooting through space, capturing them in the warp field.  These particles would travel with the ship, picking up larger amounts of energy as the trip carried on.  FInally, it is believed that upon disengaging the warp drive, these particles would blast out in a cone shape, annihilating anything in its path.  The true humor of the idea then arises from the fact that upon arriving anywhere, you would instantly vaporize the place you came to.   

http://www.stumbleupon.com/su/4utJG1/www.extremetech.com/extreme/140635-the-downside-of-warp-drives-annihilating-whole-star-systems-when-you-arrive/

http://www.stumbleupon.com/su/4utJG1/www.extremetech.com/extreme/140635-the-downside-of-warp-drives-annihilating-whole-star-systems-when-you-arrive/

Picture:

http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/blogs/6a00d8341bf67c53ef017ee3bf9830970d-800wi.jpg

One of the most interesting, and relatively recently discovered, features of the universe are quasars. Quasars are known for being the most luminous objects in the universe, as well as some of the most massive. In fact, despite being 2.4 x 10^9 light years away, the quasar 3C 273 is still visible with amateur telescopic equipment. But what exactly are quasars? Are they stars, or something quite different?

In short, quasars are something very, very different from stars. Quasars are huge masses of radiation that form at the center of gigantic active galaxies around supermassive black holes. In the most simple of terms, they are formed by the accretion of elements as they are sucked toward a supermassive black hole. On average, quasars are 10 – 10,000 times the size of the black holes they form around. For an artist’s rendering of a quasar, click the link below.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Artist%27s_rendering_ULAS_J1120%2B0641.jpg

First discovered in the 1960s, by the astronomer Allen Sandage, quasars where only evident by the radio waves they emit. Eventually, these radio sources where tied to optical observations of what appeared, at first, to be faint blue stars. However, when spectra were attained of these mysterious objects. The spectra were like nothing ever seen before, with emission lines that defied interpretation. It was not until the 1970s, when accretion disc energy-production was beginning to be understood, that quasars were finally recognized for what they are. Their emission spectra where interpreted as being characterized by massive red shifts, an idea originally proposed by John Bolton in the 60’s.

This red shift is one of the most interesting properties of quasars. Red shifts are shifts in emission spectra caused by the stretching of wavelengths as an object moves away from the observer, or vice versa. This is also known as the Doppler Effect. The implication of the red shift characteristic of quasars is, of course, that the earth and all the quasars around it are moving away from each other. Based on its red shift, the above mentioned quasar, 3C 273 is believed to be moving away from the Earth at about 47,000 km/s. This information was very important at the time of its discovery, as it provided evidence for the theory of an expanding universe, which in turn supported the Big Bang Theory.

Quasars of some of the most interesting known bodies in our universe. These ominously bright objects are unique that can be viewed from billions of light years away with nothing more than an amateur telescope, a single one emitting a thousand times as much energy as the entire Milky Way galaxy.

All information attained from:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar

Plains of Mars: Home Sweet Home?

Now, even the most open-minded human being would be skeptical at the proposed statement, above and for good reason, too. That is why the very scientisist who proposed the idea, Dr. Steven Benner, is very skeptical, himself. Let us untwist this idea from the media’s perspective and put it into our own. Let us start with the question we have been wondering for years: What is the origin of life? Benner answers this question, indirectly, in an interview(1): “There’s no better way to understand this intimate relationship between molecular structure and biology than try and make a biology of your own…” Dr. Benner is the leading chemist in the field of synthetic biology, and for a living he tries to synthesize life out of various chemicals. New York times reports (2) that he has synthesized RNA in the  lab, a precursor to DNA, but for this to happen naturally, two vital chemicals must be present: borate and molybdate. Where might these chemicals be found? In the presence of oxygen and dry land (desert like areas). Though since deserts and oxygen were not around before life formed on Earth, these chemicals must have come from somewhere else. A recent analysis of a meteor from Mars shows that the object was highly composed of boron, a form of borate. There is also plenty of desert-like land on Mars, as well as indicators of the planet once having an abundance of oxygen. You see where Benner is going with this… Now, of course, this is only one possibility for the origin of life, based on one method of synthesizing RNA. So naturally, we are skeptical, as is the scientist that proposed the idea. However, this skepticism from the source makes us trust the source and give real consideration for the idea. After all, the evidence is there. So, are we all Martians? We may soon find out…

How legitimate is Benner? Find out for yourself on his page at the Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution:

http://www.ffame.org/sbenner.php

(1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AvEWFXGb6ZE

(2) http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/12/science/space/a-far-flung-possibility-for-the-origin-of-life.html?ref=science

After reading an article from the Astrobiology Magazine website, I find it fascinating that panspermia, a hypothesis that life came from space, could actually be true. Of course, this has always been a well considered hypothesis. Though, scientists have always questioned: if life (ex: bacteria) were to exist on an asteroid, could it survive the extreme temperatures and the radiation from the sun? What about the  Earth’s atmosphere and the force caused by the impact? Even though Dina Pasini, a researcher with the European Planetary Science Congress at UCL, could not answer all these questions, her research did prove to be useful.

Using frozen algae organisms, Pasini tested whether such simple life forms could survive impacts at extreme speeds. Using a light gas gun, she fired bullets of organisms at 6.93 km/s into water. Even at that speed, some organisms still survive. A typical meteorite impacting Earth would likely have similar speeds, showing that life could survive the initial impact. With regards to freezing and radiation, if organisms were embedded deep in ice or rock, it could protect it from the temperature and radiation. Moreover, passing through Earth’s atmosphere would only create heat on a thin surface layer of the asteroid, again protection any life forms within the asteroid.

Even though this test does not accurately recreate an actual meteor impact,  it shows that panspermia is possible after all. This also implies and raises many questions. First of all, we could all potentially be aliens. But more importantly, if we find extraterrestrial life, they could be related to us. And if life came from some other planet, we must stem from some other species. Are humans considered a primitive species in the eyes of others? Do some other species stem from us?

http://www.astrobio.net/pressrelease/5687/could-life-have-survived-a-fall-to-earth

My hometown of Seattle is surrounded by many geologic features.  Because of Seattle’s location on the edge of the North American plate the area has many volcanoes, mountain ranges, and is frequented by earthquakes.  The volcanoes form a line north to south, paralleling the Cascades.  The cascades, while not as large as the Rockies, are much steeper and incredibly jagged. 

                There are a total of nine volcanoes in Washington, the majority of which are stratovolcanoes.   The volcanoes, especially Mount Rainier, are iconic parts of the Washington State geography.  Mount Rainier, a large stratovolcano (14,411ft) sits due south of Seattle and is heavily glaciated with 26 major glaciers.  Mount Rainier was placed on the decade list of most deadly volcanoes on Earth, due to its explosive nature, proximity to large metropolitan areas and the high likelihood for it to produce massive ash and ice landslides, similar to those on St. Helens, but larger in size.  While it has not erupted in over one hundred years it is still active, though no indications have been seen of an imminent eruption. Mount Baker, north and slightly east of Seattle is another well known volcano, not for its size (10,781 ft), but for its extreme snowfall.  It currently holds the world record for the most snowfall in a single season, around 29 meters, which is closely followed by Mt. Rainier’s record of 28.5 meters.  There are a total of nine volcanoes in Washington, the majority of which are stratovolcanoes.

                Earthquakes are another geological hazard of the Seattle area.  In early 2001 the Nisqually earthquake hit the Puget Sound.  It measured a 6.8 and it destroyed and damaged numerous bridges and structures around Seattle.  We were very lucky that it stopped when it did the Alaskan Way viaduct, an eight lane bridge on the water front of Seattle, nearly collapsed.  State engineers did an analysis of the damage and found that collapse would have been very likely if the earthquake had lasted just 15 seconds longer.  Numerous other earthquakes hit the Seattle region, though most are smaller.